TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENTS PAGE
Title Page – – – – – – – – i
Certification – – – – – – – ii
Dedication – – – – – – – – iii
Acknowledgements – – – – – – iv
Abstract – – – – – – – v
Table of Contents – – – – – – – vi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION – – – – – 1
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 HUMAN SKIN COLOUR – – – – 4
2.2 Biology of pigments cell – – – – – 5
2.3 Biochemical and Hormonal Control of Pigmentation 6
2.4 Function of melanin – – – – – 9
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 MEASUREMENT OF SKIN PIGMENTATION- 12
3.2 Disorders of pigmentation – – – – 15
3.2.1 Hypomelanosis – – – – – – 15
3.2.1.1 Piebaldism – – – – – – – 16
3.2.1.2 Waardenburg (WB) syndrome – – – 17
3.2.1.3 Oculocutaneous Albinism – – – – 18
3.2.1.4 Ocular Albinism – – – – – – 20
3.2.1.5 Hermay – pudlaksyndrome – – – – 21
3.2.1.6 Tuberous sclerosis – – – – – 23
3.2.2 Hypermelanosis – – – – – – 24
3.2.2.1 Café aulait macules – – – – – 24
3.2.2.2 Neurofibromatosis – – – – – 25
3.2.2.3 McCune – Albright syndrome – – – 26
3.2.2.4 Melasma – – – – – – – 27
3.2.2.5 Lentigens – – – – – – – 28
3.2.2.6 Freckles – – – – – – – 29
3.2.2.7 Leukomdanoderma – – – – – 30
3.2.2.8 Melanoma – – – – – – 30
3.3 Treatment option for pigmentation disorders – – 31
3.3.1 Wood Light Investigation – – – – 32
3.3.2 Phototheraphy – – – – – – 32
3.3.3 Intense Pulased Light – – – – – 33
3.3.4 Fraxel Laser – – – – – – – 33
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES 35
4.1 Summary – – – – – – – 35
4.2 Conclusion – – – – – – – 36
References
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Pigmentation in all mammals including humans primarily is determined by the distribution of melanin in body, which shows remarkable diversity in human population globally and is the most variable phenotype in human (Deng and Xu, 2017).Pheomelanin is the typical biological form of melanin, a yellow–red pigment, whereas eumelanin is a brown-black pigment. Enzymes such as tyrosinase-related protein 1 and 2 regulate eumelanogenesis(Kim et al., 2014;Kobayashi et al.,1995). Many signaling pathways help to produce melanin in cells, amongst which the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) pathway is most studied (Busca and Ballotti, 2000; Steingrímsson et al., 2004). The AMP stimulation results in the up-regulation of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related proteins-1(Trp1) and tyrosinase-related proteins-2 (Trp2) (Bertolottoet al., 1998; Yasumoto et al., 1997; Yavuzeret al., 1995).