PERCEIVED EXERCISE BENEFITS AND BARRIERS AMONG STAFF AND STUDENTS OF TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN ADAMAWA STATE

Abstract

Perceived exercise benefits and barriers among staff and students in tertiary institutions in Adamawa State were investigated as a basis for formulating proper exercise intervention strategies. The study utilized descriptive survey design. The purpose of the study was to determine perceived exercise benefits and barriers among staff and students of tertiary institutions in Adamawa state, Nigeria. The instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire adapted from Exercise Benefit/Barrier Scale (EBBS) developed by Sechrist, Walker and Pender (1985) which was validated by five experts. Eight hundred and fifty (850) copies of the questionnaire were distributed among respondents in six institutions of higher learning in Adamawa state. The scale comprised two components; Benefits and Barriers dimensions. The barriers scales needed not to be reversed scored in this case because both benefits and barriers scales were used independently in the study. To achieve this purpose, twelve research questions were posed and ten null hypotheses postulated for their verification at .05 level of significance.  The instrument had a four response forced-choice Likert-type format with responses ranging from 4 = strongly agree (SA), 3 = Agree (A), 2 = Disagree (D) and 1 = strongly Disagree (SD).The findings of the study revealed that both male and female staff in institutions of higher learning in Adamawa state perceived exercise as highly beneficial. However, male staff had higher perceived benefits score than their female counterparts. (Male:  = 95.02. SD = 3.08) > female:  = 94.04, SD = 4.35. Also, both male and female students in institutions of higher learning in Adamawa state perceived exercise as beneficial, but female students reported higher perception than the male students. (Female:=94.50=4.13>male: = 93.74,SD=4.33). There were also no significant difference in perceived exercise barriers between staff and students of tertiary institutions in Adamawa state. Based on the finding of the study, it was concluded that both staff and students of tertiary institutions perceived exercise as highly beneficial, and also perceived barriers to exercise as highly important factor influencing participation in exercise. It was recommended that since staff and student in institutions of higher learning in Adamawa State irrespective of gender and religious affiliations have basic knowledge of perceived benefits of exercise, there is the need to explore programme that will enable both students and staff across the sub-groups to overcome barriers that could discourage physical exercise participation.

CHAPTER ONE

 Introduction

Background to the Study

Participation in exercise has remained an important behavioural lifestyle for promoting and maintaining recreational experience, social and psychological wellbeing, and physical health. Exercise has become so important globally that it has increasingly attracted the interest of many governments of the world (Daskapan, Tuzun & Eker 2006). As a result, participation in many countries of the world has been made mandatory (El Ansari & Phillips 2004). Also, in many establishments such as in industries and schools, certain periods are set out to enable workers or students participate in exercises of their choice (El Ansari & Lovell, 2009).

Exercise is any form of physical activity that is specifically planned, structured and repetitive such as weight training, tai chi, or an aerobics class, (Sofi, Capalbo, Cesari, Abbate & Gensini, 2008). Exercise is an activity that gets one’s body moving which enables the respiratory organ to undergo some physiological changes (National Institute of Health 2012).

Exercise is an activity done for the purpose of refreshing the body cardio respiratory organism so as to enable the body performs above average levels of human endeavours. This principally explained further that individuals young and old irrespective of gender are liable to some illnesses ones they are not involved in regular exercise routine because of their physiological responses.

Cliff (1992) defined exercises as systematic process of repetitively programmed exercises or work involving acclimatisation, conditioning, repetitive performance exercise for development  and maintenance of physical fitness that enables the individuals to cope with the general and specific sporting activities, be it competitive, recreational, casual or emergency activities. It is a deliberate movement of any part or the whole of the body for definite purpose. This definition implies that exercises have a lot of influence on and contribution to enhance qualities of life and promote optimum performance and wellness of participants.

Based on the above definitions, exercise can be described as the process of maintaining structurally organised physical activity programmes for the enhancement of body functions by the reactions of the skeletal muscles in order to produce results, which increases cardiovascular functional capacity and decreases myocardial oxygen demand at any level of physical activity in apparently healthy persons as well as most subjects with cardiovascular disease. Regular exercise is required to maintain these training effects.

According to Morgan (1979), physical activities are activities that are beneficial to any active individual, irrespective of whether they are recreational or commercial activities. Active participation in physical activities can reduce anxiety levels or worry. Physical activity also contributes many benefits to our physical well being. Abdullah and Omar Fauzee (2002) posited that among the benefits gained from physical activities are improvements of the lung system by way of deepening a person’s respiration as well as strengthening the heart’s muscles and increasing its size. A person who is physically active and exercises regularly will be able to adopt active lifestyle, look more attractive and experience changes in moods and self-esteem.

Physical activity involves the movements of the body that results in the contraction of skeletal muscles and increases in energy levels. There are numerous healthy lifestyles or behaviours that contribute to our quality of life, health and our general well-being. A study done by (National Association for Sport & Physical Education, 2003), found that women’s perception and attitude on physical activities helps them to reduce their stress levels and improved their work-related time management. On the other hand, men view physical activities as a way to an active lifestyle. The attitude and perception of an individual towards physical activities determines his/her level of enthusiasm in living an active life. One’s attitude serves as an important evaluator that gives meaning to his/her symbol of identity (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Telegen & Segal 1990).

In view of the above definitions by various researchers, physical activity can be seen as a process in which body movement is influenced by various factors in order for the physiological organs to function in accordance with the level of its duration, intensity and frequency. Duration could be seen as amount of time spent participating in physical activity session, intensity as the rate of energy expenditure and frequency, the number of physical activity session during a specific time period which includes some regular or moderate activities.

Regular and moderate exercise can help manage stress and improve your mood which provides one with health benefits that can help you feel better and enjoy life more as you age. In addition, being active on a regular basis may help reduce feelings of depression. Study by Nahas & Goldtine (2003), suggests that exercise can improve or maintain some aspects of cognitive function, such as one’s ability to shift quickly between tasks, plan an activity and ignore irrelevant information. The benefits of regular exercise for physiological and psychological health are well documented. According to Mcqinnis & Lee (2000),Daskapan, Tuzun & Eker, (2006), participation in regular exercise significantly postpones or prevents common musculoskeletal disorders including low back pain, neck and shoulder pain and decreasing the risk of developing coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, obesity and colon cancers,reduced risk of premature death,  reduction of depression and anxiety, control of body weight, development of strong bones, joints and muscles, development of strength and agility in older people that enable them move better without falling and the promotion of psychological wellbeing.

However, despite the well published benefits of exercise, many individuals in developed countries rarely engage in exercise sufficient for health benefits such as in Australia, (Lovell, Ansari & Parker (2010), in  America, Sofi, Capelbo, Cesari, Abbate & Gensini, (2008), and in United Kingdom, (The Health Survey for England, 2002). Exercise participation in moderate to vigorous physical activity has been generally decreasing around the world. While this decrease has been very significant in industrialized Countries, it has been very high in developing countries.  In the U.S. for example, the proportion of people aged 15years and above, who do not engage in exercise, is reducing to 1.5 percent (American College of Sports Medicine 1995). This segment of population is not reducing even to 95% in developing countries. There is therefore a challenging task to educate and motivate people to incorporate regular exercise as an essential part of their lifestyle.

In another development, recent technology has reduced the physical demands of day to day activities, like washing, cleaning and going to work place. Automation has made more time available for leisure pursuits. Unfortunately, most of the new found leisure time is used for sedentary pursuits, whereas human body is designed for strenuous physical activities. This has resulted in the decline of functional ability of the human body. Exercise scientists and health professionals strongly believe that this decrease in physical activity has led to a rise in the incidence of several degenerative disorders, like coronary heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, obesity and overweight, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and some form of cancer, like breast cancer and colon cancer (Bouchard & Depress 1995).

Furthermore, the advances in technology, and over reliance on technology, increasing urbanization of the population and the mechanization within the work place, have both directly and indirectly affected participation in exercise. Exercise have been relegated to leisure activity (Dishman, 1994).Moreso, participation in Physical activity among adults in diverse settings has been found to be on the decrease (Buckworth & Dishman 1999). However, Daskapan, Tuzun & Eker(2006) concluded that two cognitive variables of perceived benefits and perceived barriers to exercise are major factors that account for physical activity participation levels. Perceived benefits can positively, while perceived barriers can negatively influence the participation in exercie activity.These barriers have been classified in different ways. Daskapan, Tuzun & Eker (2006); Umeifekwem (2010), concluded that perceived exercise barriers were considered a single important attribute which explains observed physical inactivity behaviours among  samples of young people and adult across varied work places including industries and school establishments while benefits of exercise are considered based on some factors that influenced participation.

Benefits of exercise are conceptualised in this study in line with Lewis & Malow (1997) definition as a person’s opinion of the value or usefulness of exercise, as behaviour in decreasing the risk of developing a disease. Developing and maintaining aerobic endurance, joint flexibility, and muscle strength are important in a comprehensive exercise program, especially as people age. Elderly women and men show improvement in exercise training (Mcqinnis & Lee, 2000). Activities such as walking, hiking, stair-climbing, aerobic exercise, calisthenics, resistance training, jogging, running, bicycling, rowing, swimming, and sports such as tennis, racquetball, soccer, basketball, and “touch” football are especially beneficial when performed regularly(Nahas & Godfine,2003).

Perceived barrier to exercise, on the other hand in this study adopts the definition by Bandura (1977) as a person’s estimation of the level of challenge of social, personal, and economic obstacles to a specified behaviour or their desired goal status on that behaviour which may hinder participation in exercise. Barriers to physical activity can be overcome by a sensible and integrated approach that considers personal circumstances and develops a programme achievable within these constraints (Pinto & Marcus 1995).

Perceived benefits and barriers intensities to exercise in this study will comprise two components: Benefits and Barriers. According to the developers, Walker, Sechrist & Pender (1985), individuals perceive exercise as beneficial in various degrees with specific to life enhancement; physical performance, psychological outlook, social interaction, and preventive health. They also consider barriers to exercise as related to exercise milieu; time expenditure; physical exertion; and family discouragement.

There are other factors that influence how individuals would participate in exercise, these includes demographic variables such as age, gender, religious affiliation, attitudes and beliefs about exercise. The age of adolescence and older people vary in the way they partake in physical activity because of their physiological response. A study by British Geriatric Society suggests that level of knowledge about the specific health benefits of physical activity were high among older people and that majority of older people believe they partake in adequate levels of activity. In such case, the types of exercise in which the older people partake in should be relatively moderate because of the age difference, while children and adolescents are into more vigorous ones (Biddle, Gorely & Studel, 2004). Gender also plays a significant role in physical activity. For many Muslim women, for example, aspects of their faith, rules on mixed gender sports and dress code requirement, have either prevented or given the impression of preventing participation. Socio-cultural barrier also play a role. Another biggest barriers associated with levels of activity is the perception that physical activity is unfeminine (Women Sports and Fitness Foundation 2009). This has been disapproved beyond reasonable doubt by various researchers (Walker, Volkan, Sechrist & Pender 1988). According to these researchers, physical activity improves the physical appearance of any individual irrespective of age and gender. Religious affiliation associate with how a person or a group of persons consider participating in physical activity. For example, especially in Muslims’ dominated areas, Muslim women who live under purdar seem to have common practice even in Hindu societies, in which women either remain in a special part of the house or cover their faces and bodies to avoid being seen by men who are not related to them. If a woman is in purdar, she is likely to live according to this custom, in such case; participation in physical activity will be quite difficult because of the barrier attached and the attitudes and belief which may affect her health status (Women Sports and Fitness Foundation 2009).

People’s attitudes and belief affect their intention to engage in exercise in adult aged 18-66 years. The group intending to exercise regularly had significantly more positive attitude toward exercise than those not intending to engage in physical activities (Pender & Pender 1996). According to Ajzen & Madden (1986), attitudes are affected by social norms, which then influence intentions and in turn behaviour. If the social norm is not to be physically active and not to enjoy the physical concomitance of being physically active (e.g. increase heart rate, increase sweating, feeling of being activated), then an individual attitudes towards physical activity may become more negative, with the effect of reduced exercise intention and ultimately behaviour. In the light of peer pressure, and current trends and social contexts of students, universities (and schools) that do not sufficiently project positive images about the health benefits of physical exertion might instead become effective environment for the propagation of negative prospective towards physical exertion. Within this context, the perceived benefits and barriers to exercise are important mediators of physical activity behaviour change considering factors such as self efficacy, demographic features and peer pressure (Nahas & Goldtine, 2003).

It needs also be considered, however, that psychological factors such as self efficacy, demographic features such as age, personality and peer pressure, also play important roles in engagement and adherence to physical exercise behaviour change interventions (Rosentoss, Stretcher & Becker, 1988). With specific reference to barriers, despite a recent review of about 50 studies of health behaviour change where perceived barriers were the single most powerful predictor of health behaviour (Janz & Becker, 1984), such barriers to exercise have not been examined in detail (Ransdell, Detling,  Hildebrand,  Lau, Moyer-mileur, & Shultz, 2004). In addition, the limited number of studies that examined staff and students’ perceived benefits and barriers to exercise have often not considered how different developmental milestones and specific circumstances at different stages of staff and students lives impacts on both their interest to exercise and ability to be physically active (Castro, Wilcox, Eyler, sallis & Brownson, 2000). Furthermore, a characteristic of many developed countries is the relatively high percentages of the population who enrols for higher education: e.g. In the USA during the year 2000,s over 14.5 million students were enrolled in tertiary institution with over 56% adults (Leslie , Sparling & Owen 2001).

Tertiary institution is an organization, establishment or educational environment where different transactions irrespective of gender, age, sex, status, race and background, individuals from different places interact and share common understanding, views, issues and ideas in other to gain knowledge (Olajide 1998). Example of such are universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, school of health, sports institutions etc. The characteristics of this environment are mainly research work, knowledge provision specifically in Engineering, Technology, Communication, Education, Nursing and Health, Sports Clinics, Physicians etc. One of the major extracurricular activities which highly characterized all institution of higher learning programme is sports. Students and staff of institution of higher learning who partake in physical exercise do so for the purpose of keeping fit and avoidance of illnesses such as diabetes, hypertension, coronary heart disease, obesity and overweight(Bauman, Bellew, Vita, Brown & Owen, 2005).

For the avoidance of all the illnesses mentioned above, schools provide some reasonable environment for the purpose of sporting activities to enable staff and students in all the tertiary institutions involve themselves in exercise. Some of the facilities and equipment provided by tertiary institutions are Tennis Courts, Volley Ball Court, Handball Pitch, Soccer Pitch, Athletic Track and Field, Indoor and Out Door Recreation, Hockey Pitch, etc. (Olajide 1998).Incorporating exercise into daily routine of target groups including staff and students of institutions of higher learning might be beneficial to improving the quality of their lives and prevent some of the physical consequences of ageing.  This is because, strategies involving changes in life style, such as adoption of a physical fitness plan encourage individuals to assume responsibility for their own health.

Understanding why individuals especially staff and students of institution of higher learning do or do not participate in sufficient exercise is complex and multifaceted encompassing personal, interpersonal, environmental, and policy determinants (Milsum 1986). Research which advances our understanding of any of these factors has strong potential to better put in the picture the need for physical activity promotion interventions and which will in turn support positive public health outcomes in both physiological and psychological dimensions.  According to Milsum (1986), prevention and promotion of physical exercise constitute largely unexplored area for the staff and students of Institution of higher learning. More so, it is necessary to further investigate staff and students perception for physical activity and the challenges they face in attempting to be active (Umeifekwem, 2010).

Furthermore, student’s year of study is closely related to their physical activity.  Students of higher institutions, who are in their final years of study, have been found to be more preoccupied with their academic pursuits than other students. For example, Health Pratt, Warren and Kann (1994) remarked that as students move towards graduation, a disturbing decline in participation in physical activity and vigorous activity is observed. Rees, karanagh, Harden, Shepherd, Brunton, Oliver and Oakley (2006) held that the complete interrelationship between personal identity and educational status and degree of support from the social environment correlate with the physical activity pursuits of the students. Dike (2005) confirmed that lifestyle factors like academic pressure on the students and the determination of the students to do well in the examination due to the current emphasis on paper qualification has kept many students of the college busier in academics than necessary.

Analysis of factors that influence staff and students’ participation has suggested that staff and students of tertiary institutions who perceived more benefits from exercise and fewer barriers to exercise were typically more active than those who reported high perceived barriers and low perceived benefits. These findings are consistent with the theoretical framework adopted by the present investigation, the Health Belief Model (HBM) Janz & Becker, (1984), HBM, a cognitive behaviourist theory, contends that an individual readiness to engage in preventive health behaviour is a function of their perceived threat associated with that behaviour, e.g. physical inactivity and an assessment of the relative costs, (barriers difficulties or hindering factors) and benefits associated with the adoption of that specific preventive health behaviour. The HBM’s original four constructs comprised: perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, perceived benefits, and perceived barriers. This proposed that the likelihood that an individual will engage in health behaviour (e.g. physical Activity) depends largely on their perceived magnitude of the barriers against being physically active and their perceived benefits to being physically active. Although the literature has reported perceived barriers to be key in predicting health behaviour (Janz & Becker, 1984), more recent research has suggested the issue to be more complex, implicating the ratio of perceived barriers to perceived benefits as being more predictive of behaviour (El Ansari & Phillips 2004).

According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2007),”Perception” is to understand or think of something or someone in a particular way. Free online Dictionary (2012), defined perception as to become aware of directly, through any of the senses, especially sight or hearing.

Perception is defined as an act of being aware of “ones” environment through physical sensation, which denotes individual’s ability to understand (Chambers Dictionary 2010). However, many social Psychologists have tended to develop the concept around one of its most essential characteristics that the world around us is not psychologically uniform to all individual. According to Nelson & Quick (1997), perception is the process of interpreting information about another person. What this definition has clearly highlighted is the opinions one forms about another person, material, idea or activity depending on the amount of information available to him/her and the extent to which he/she is able to correctly interpret the information acquired. In other words, one may be in possession of the same set of information that people have on a particular situation, person or group but arrive at different conclusions due to individual differences in the capacity to interpret the information available to all.

Based on the above definitions by various researchers, perception can be understood as the ability of an individual to understand various sensations, such as feelings, thinking and making constructive judgement on the outcome of that behaviour be it positive or negative that could be of benefit to the concerned individual in that environment which can be linked to participation in physical exercise..

Taking the above into account, we find that many people who participate in exercise come across some type of difficulties to continue practicing it and basically because of the way he/she perceived the benefit of and the barriers to physical activity participation. Thus, the analysis of the barriers that hinder the adherence to the daily practice is a key factor within physical activity, mainly in youth. This is because the risk of adopting a sedentary behaviour in adulthood would increase especially the staff and students of higher institutions. Lamani (2004) opined that the success or benefits of any programme to a large extent depends on identification of the factors that are susceptible to its intervention which is classified as perceived barriers. What could now be the factors responsible for the poor participation in exercise or physical activity among staff and students of institutions of higher learning in Adamawa state?

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