ABSTRACT
The study investigated the role of self-esteem and gender in self-report of depressive symptoms among adolescents in a sample of two hundred and sixty one (261) Secondary School Students in Enugu State Capital of Enugu State of Nigeria comprising adolescents from various socio-economic backgrounds. It hypothesized that self-esteem and gender would not play any significant role in the participant’s self- report of depressive symptoms. ANOVA statistics was used to analyze the data. The result showed that self-esteem played a significant role in self-report of depressive symptoms (F = 384.88, df = 1, p <. 05), with participants who have high self-esteem reporting low depression than those with low self-esteem. On the other hand, male and female students did not differ in their report on depression.
Discussion highlighted the importance of intervention in limiting or eliminating depression thereby leading to enhanced mental health.
Keywords: self-esteem, gender, depression, secondary school students
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Depression is a common mental illness that affects a lot of people all over the world. It is a universal experience and it is said to be the common cold of psychopathology in Europe and America (Oladimeji 1995). In Africa as well, depression has been found, in its various forms, to be high on the list of common problems in psychiatric clinics and hospitals (Gentian 1968; Ebie, 1972).
Depression can be viewed in three separate ways as a biological disease, as a reaction to life situations, and as a means of interpersonal communication. Expounding depression as a reaction to life situations, Nolen-Hoeksema (2004) defined depression as a state marked by either a sad mood or a loss of interest in one’s usual activities, as well as feelings of hopelessness, suicidal ideation, psychomotor agitation or retardation and trouble concentrating.
Investigators recently have begun to develop models that attempt to integrate cognitive and interpersonal processes in understanding vulnerability to depression. With respect to cognitive dysfunctions, depression is marked by a variety of negative thought patterns, including dysfunctional attitudes (Barnett & Gotlib, 1992). Importantly, such negative thinking is associated with relapse of depression (Simons, Murphy, Levine, & Wetzel, 1986) and its absence predicts recovery from the disorder (Brown, Bifulco, & Andrew, 1990.) With respect to interpersonal difficulties, depression has been linked to interpersonal rejection (Gotlib & Robinson, 1982), inadequate social support in times of crisis (Brown, Bifulco, Harris & Bridge, 1986) and marital conflict (Beach, Sandeen, & O’Leary, 1990). Furthermore, relapse in depression is associated with family criticism (Hooley, Orley & Teasdale, 1986), whereas speed and likelihood of recovery is predicted by low levels of family conflict, and positive overall family functioning (Corney, 1987).
In recent years, a variety of new and innovative models of depression have been proposed (Beck, 1972). The author analyzed depression from a social learning or behavioural point of view. The various symptoms of clinical depression are seen as maladaptive behaviours, to a considerable degree acquired through learning principles. Emphasis is on the roles of environmental antecedents and consequences of depressed behaviour and faulty patterns maintenance of depression.
Symptom, according to Harriman (1977) is any observed characteristic or change indicating the presence or onset of a pathological condition. The symptoms of depression, within the behavioural framework, are classified by their mode of expression into the physiological, overt-motor and verbal-cognitive categories (Lang, 1968 as cited in Oladimeji, 1995), According to American Psychiatric Association (2000), depression includes a variety of emotional, physiological, behavioural, and cognitive symptoms. Emotional Symptoms include; sadness, depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities, irritability (particularly in children and adolescents).
Physiological and Behavioural Symptoms include: sleep disturbance (hypersomnia or insomnia), appetite disturbances, psychomotor retardation or agitation, catatonia (Unusual behaviours ranging from complete lack of movement to excited agitation), fatigue and loss of energy. Cognitive Symptoms include: poor concentration and attention, indecisiveness, sense of worlhlessness or guilt, poor self-esteem, hopelessness, suicidal thoughts, delusion and hallucinations with depressive themes.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual four (DSM-IV) of the American
Psychiatric Association (2003) categorized major depressive episodes and stated that five (or more) of the nine symptoms —— depressed mood; marked diminished interest or pleasure in all or almost all activities most of the day; significant weight loss when not dieting, or weight gain; insomnia or hyposomnia nearly every day; psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly everyday; fatigue or loss of energy nearly everyday; feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt; diminished ability to think or concentrate or indecisiveness, nearly everyday; and recurrent thought of death or recurrent suicidal ideation —- should be present during the same 2 – week period and represent a change from previous functioning. (APA, 2003).